Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Early History
Between the 11th and 19th centuries, Abkhazia and Georgia existed as two separate and independent countries. The boundaries which exist today were created as a result of the Abkhazian Chachba Dynasty, who whilst in power between 1500 and 1680 drove the Mingrelian population out. In 1810 Abkhazia became a protectorate of the Russian Empire but preserved its statehood and system of self-governance in the form of a sovereign principality. In 1864, Abkhazia became the last principality to be forcibly annexed to the Russian Empire as a result of the Russian-Circassia War. Around a quarter of a million Abkhaz are said to have fled from Abkhazia to Turkey.

After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, Georgia and Abkhazia functioned as two independent states, but in May 1918 the new Menshevik led Georgian Democratic Republic occupied and annexed Abkhazia. The Mensheviks in Georgia were overthrown by the Bolsheviks in March 1921 ending their independence. An independent Soviet Socialist Republic of Abkhazia was proclaimed on the 31st of March 1921. On the 21st of May 1921, the Revolutionary Committee of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic recognised the independence of Abkhazia. In 1931 however, Stalin, who was himself Georgian, reduced the status of Abkhazia to that of an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Abkhaz ASSR) within the Georgia SSR.

Between 1937 and 1953, Stalin’s policies generated a huge influx of oppressed peoples into Abkhazian territory. Lavrentiy Beria, a soviet politician with close ties to Stalin at the time, encouraged mass Georgian migration into the area often referred to as part of the “Georginization” project. The strict homogenization under Georgian rule greatly contrasted with the traditionally tolerant Abkhazian culture. Between 1937 and 1953, the Abkhaz were deprived of the right to teach their children in their native language. All Abkhaz schools and institutions were closed and Abkhaz script (originally based on the Cyrillic and then on Latin) was altered from one based originally on Cyrillic and then on Latin to one using Georgian characters.

Many Abkhaz were forced to adopt Georgian surnames and in the Gal district, Abkhaz were given new passports indicating their nationality as Georgian. Greeks were deported from Abkhazia in 1949 and immigrants from Georgia occupied the abandoned houses. The entire demographic make-up had been altered. As early as the end of the 19th century, the Abkhaz made up just 55.3% of the region’s population following on from several years of mass forced migration to Turkey and the Middle East. But by the end of the 20th century, the Abkhaz made up just 17% of the population, essentially becoming a minority in their own homeland.

In 1978 Abkhazian intellectuals signed a letter of protest to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR complaining about the status of Abkhazia and accusing the Georgian leaders of pursuing a hard-line, oppressive policy aimed at "Georgianizing" the Republic. Major demonstrations took place in Lykhny, a sacred place in Abkhazian tradition. The Abkhazian campaign to be incorporated in the Russian Federation was rejected by both Russia and Georgia. Instead, concessions were made to the Abkhaz, including the opening of the University and TV broadcasting in Abkhazia. Moscow also dispersed millions of roubles to Abkhazia to prevent further large scale protests about living conditions. This money was allocated directly to the people, bypassing the Abkhazian government.

Recent History
On 25th August 1990, on the eve of the signing of the new Soviet Union Treaty, Abkhazia Supreme Soviet passed the Declaration of Sovereignty of Abkhazia. Sovereignty was also declared by South Ossetia. The following day, Georgia formally rejected the two declarations of sovereignty which lead to armed conflict between South Ossetia and Georgia. In 1992 Abkhazia declares sovereignty of its own territory and proposes a federative treaty to Georgia to fill in the "legal vacuum" that emerged after Georgia's unilateral rejection of all Soviet legal documents. On 14th August 1992, less than three weeks after being accepted into the United Nations, Georgian troops entered the territory of Abkhazia without any prior notification and launched a land and air attack on the southeast part of Abkhazia and its capital city, Sukhum. Fighting continued for 14 months, claimed 10,000 lives and generated mass forced displacement of around 250,000 Georgians.

In September 1993, Abkhazian forces, backed by the Confederation of the Peoples of the North Caucasus Organization finally ousted the Georgian troops from the territory of Abkhazia during battles in which human rights violations were widespread. Negotiations were chaired by the UN and observed by the OSCE and the Group of Friends of Georgia, established in 1993 and comprising of Russia, the US, France, Germany and the UK. Russia acted as a mediator. In December 1993, an official ceasefire was signed by Abkhaz and Georgian leaders as worked out by the UN. In April 1994, both sides were present in Moscow and signed the “Declaration on Measures fora Political Settlement of the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict”, also referred to as the Moscow ceasefire agreement. Fighting ceased in May 2004 after Russian troops were deployed as part of the agreement.

The de facto Abkhaz parliament held elections in 1994 and Vlaidslav Ardziba was elected president. In December 1994, Russia introduced restrictions at the Russian–Abkhaz border under the pretext of its military action in Chechnya and introduced economic sanctions against Abkhazia at Georgian insistence in January 1996. Abkhazia adopted a new constitution on 26th November 1994, once again declaring independence that was not internationally recognized. The election results in November 1996 were disputed and as such unrecognized internationally. Economic sanctions in 1996 from countries across the world severely affected Abkhazia’s growth and development although Russia infuriated the international community by making it easy for Abkhazians to gain Russian citizenship. 

Abkhazia reaffirmed national sovereignty in 1999. In 1998 and 2001 Georgia launched two more military attacks on Abkhazia. In 2004, the new Georgian President, Mikheil Saakashvili pledged that Abkhazia and South Ossetia would remain part of Georgia and promised to restore territorial integrity although his attention focused mainly on South Ossetia, which was perceived as the less resistant of the two regions.In 2004 presidential elections were held, which caused much controversy when the candidate backed by outgoing president Vladislav Ardzinba and by Russia - Raul Khadjimba - was apparently defeated by Sergey Bagapsh, a strong advocate for independence. The tense situation in the republic led to the cancellation of the election results by the Supreme Court. After that, the deal was struck between former rivals to run jointly: Bagapsh as a presidential candidate and Khajimba as a vice presidential candidate. They received more than 90% of the votes in the new election.

In July 2006, the Georgian-backed de jure Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia relocated to the Kodori Gorge in upper Abkhazia, having spent 13 years in exile in Tbilisi. This area is said to have been the only part of Abkhazia not under full control of the de facto Abkhazian government. In March 2008 Russia lifted its economic embargo on Abkhazia providing the potential for new economic growth. In April 2008, Russia shifted its official approach to the two enclaves from one of neutrality to one embracing new ties in trade, agriculture, education, diplomacy and social support. This was largely in response to Kosova’s declaration of independence from Serbia just a few months earlier in February 2008, a declaration recognized by many Western nations but in defiance of the Russian government.

Tension increased and erupted into open fighting in August 2008 when Russia is said to have responded with disproportionate violence to Georgian attacks on South Ossetia. This violence soon encompassed Abkhazia too. On 12 August 2008 the Georgian backed Government of the Autonomous republic of Abkhazia was once again pushed out of the territory. Russia formally recognized the independence of both enclaves on 25th August 2008, soon followed by Nicaragua and the Moldovan region of Transnistria, itself a region not officially recognized on an international level. As yet, no other nation has followed suit. On 12 December 2009, Abkhazia will hold its fourth Presidential elections. The incumbent President, Sergey Bagapsh, is running for a second term mandate. Beslan Butba, businessman and chairman of the Party for Economic Development of Abkhazia and Sergey Shamba, Minister for Foreign Affairs will be also running for the post.

CURRENT ISSUES

1. Relations with Georgia

Negotiations between Georgia and Abkhazia since 1993 have failed to resolve their differences. Indeed, Abkhazia and Georgia now seem further away from political agreement than in April 1994 when the Declaration on Measures for a Political Settlement of the Georgian–Abkhaz Conflict and its appendix the Quadripartite Agreement were signed.

Georgia has undertaken several military attempts to reinforce control of Abkhazia since 1993. The deployment of the Georgian Army in Kodori Gorge of Abkhazia in 2006 put an end to a fragile peace process. Georgia and the international community refuse to recognize the Sukhum-based government despite the fact that it exercises sovereign rule over its territory and people where Georgia is incapable of doing so. The Georgian recognized Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia has no actual jurisdiction in Abkhazia and since 12 August 2008 does not even maintain any presence in the territory.

Abkhazia demands reparations from Georgia for destruction during the 1992-93 war as well as the economic damage suffered due to the sanctions placed on Abkhazia by Commonwealth of Independence States. Within Georgia, there are high numbers of internally displaced people (IDP) from the war, Georgians forced out of Abkhazia as well as Abkhazians who fled the situation. Georgian President Saakashvili often uses IDPs as a bargaining chip in Abkhazian-Georgian negotiations. Abkhazia argues that the return of ethnic Abkhazians in Turkey, currently banned by sanctions, should also be allowed. Abkhazia demands recognition as a sovereign state both by Georgia and by the international community.

 2. The Role of Russia and Kosova

Peacekeepers in the region are mainly Russian in combination with UN patrols. Kodor Gorge had been the only area of Abkhazia that Georgia controlled but Russian forces took it over in August 2008 and currently remain deployed in the area [January 2009]. It is generally agreed that Russia assisted the forced expulsion of Georgian forces in 1993. A Russian military base in Gudautu was allegedly turned into a Russian peacekeepers base in 1999 though Georgia states that they have repeatedly been refused access. Russia has been accused of leniency when issuing Russian passports to those from and within the area, that provides a supposed pretext for “protecting” their people at a later stage. The level of support given to Abkhazia and its recognition by Russia in August 2008 is a legitimate response to the West’s recognition of Kosova as an independent state. President Medvedev of Russia argued when giving official recognition to Abkhazia that “in international relations, you cannot have one rule for some and another rule for others.”

Thus the conflict has expanded to take on a much more significant role in the wider arena of international relations and politics. At the moment it appears Abkhazia does not view itself to be a pawn in a wider encompassing conflict between Russia and the West since their goal of internationally recognized sovereignty has finally been achieved, if only by two nations. They also enjoy better economic prospects as a result of being closely aligned with Russia. What is essential for the people of Abkhazia is that their voices are not silenced, that they have a right to self-determination and that the plight of the people of Abkhazia is not oversimplified into a tussle between the West and Russia.

3. The Sochi Winter Olympics 2014

Further tension exists because Sochi, a Russian town forty kilometers north of the Abkhazian-Russian border won the bid for the 2014 Winter Olympics. Abkhazia has offered support for development projects in preparation for the Olympics. Given the proximity of such a huge investment project and Abkhazia’s construction sector, the Winter Olympics will become a significant boost for the Abkhaz economy. Georgians are outraged and claim that the inclusion of Abkhazia in the Olympic preparations would not only further devolve relations with Russia, but would also inhibit any sort of future Georgia-Abkhazia peace agreement from taking place.

4. Census dispute

According to the 2003 census, there are 215,972 people living in Abkhazia. Georgia contests the results  of the census, and several international sources have claimed the number is too high, putting the population size closer to 175,000. There is also a large Abkhazian Diaspora of about a million, most of whom reside in Turkey.

KEY QUESTIONS

1. Does Abkhazia have a right to independence?

Georgians consider Abkhazia to be an inalienable part of Georgia with at most the status of an autonomous republic. From the Georgian perspective any other arrangement might lead to further disintegration of the Georgian state, which is additionally troubled by its lack of control over South Ossetia. The Abkhaz argue that, as Abkhazia was forcibly incorporated into Georgia by Stalin’s regime in 1931, the collapse of the USSR and the subsequent unilateral annulment by Georgia of legal measures joining the two countries in one republic merely confirmed Abkhazia’s legal and moral right to independence. Furthermore, the Abkhaz claim that the war unleashed by Georgia in 1992 has resulted in de facto independence. From the outset of the conflict, the Georgian side pronounced the inviolability of the territorial integrity of the former Soviet Republic of Georgia and the inadmissibility of any internal reorganization of Georgia on federal principles. This is in spite of a functioning Abkhaz government and takes such an unequivocal position that there seems to be no room for peaceful negotiation.

The majority of UN Security Council Resolutions have been openly pro-Georgian. This reflects the bias inherent in the negotiation process conducted under the auspices of the UN to which Georgia belongs and Abkhazia does not. In December 1994, Russia introduced restrictions at the Russian–Abkhaz border under the pretext of its military action in Chechnya and in January 1996 implemented the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) decision to introduce economic sanctions against Abkhazia at Georgian insistence. Pressure on Abkhazia increased further with the creation of the Group of Friends of Georgia, comprising the US, the UK, Germany, France and Russia. The ambassadors of the ‘Friends’ have actively joined the negotiation process, especially since 1997. As a result they are now better informed about Abkhazia and its demands, but this has not in itself contributed to any significant change in the substance of the negotiations.

2. Why can Abkhazia be considered a state?

Whilst the only countries to have formally recognized Abkhazia’s independence are Russia and Nicaragua, many other nations have formally signed or recognize the principles of the 1933 Montevideo Convention which gives the definition of statehood. The four criteria for statehood include 1) a permanent population, 2) a defined territory, 3) a government, and 4) the capacity to enter into relations with the other states, by having the capacity to exercise “effective control” over its territory. It was signed by 19 states in the Americas at the time although the European Union recognizes the Convention’s legitimate definition of a state following the aforementioned criteria. There is widespread consensus of its legitimacy in academic circles too.

Since Abkhazia has a permanent population of around 200,000, 44% of whom are Abkhaz in ethnic origin, has had parliamentary elections since 1996 and a constitution since 1994 run by a functioning government which governs over a specific area of land and who formally engages in diplomatic meetings with Georgia and Russia amongst others, Abkhazia appears to have a good case to be considered a state in international fora.

3. Why has Nicaragua officially recognized Abkhazia’s independence?

Nicaragua has sided with Moscow and other leftist Latin American countries largely as a show of defiance towards the US. On 15 September 2008, the US President George Bush declared “unwavering support for Georgia’s democratic government” and condemned the actions by Russia. This followed a declaration on 4 September 2008 by US vice-president Dick Cheney that Russia’s actions were an “illegitimate, unilateral attempt to change borders by force”. He promised to accept Georgia into NATO as a full member which only inflamed diplomatic relations with Russia.

The leftist governments of Venezuela, Cuba, Belarus and Syria have all voiced support for Russia and criticized Georgia’s attempt to reassert control over both Abkhazia and South Ossetia. This support is also considered to be related to more general geopolitical criticisms of US policy. None however have gone as far as Nicaragua’s president Daniel Ortega, to officially recognize their declared status of sovereignty. Belarus has postponed official recognition three times but repeatedly say it is on the forthcoming agenda.

CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Most Abkhazians live mainly subsistence lifestyles in rural areas. It has recently been acknowledged that there is a disproportionately high occurrence of nonagenarians and centenarians in certain areas in the Caucasus, including Abkhazia. This is thought to be largely due to their propensity to conduct very active lifestyles continuing to work the fields, dance, sing, and walk long distances into their ninth decade.Horses play a significant role in Abkhazian culture. Equestrian activities are popular activities for Abkhazians and often play a central role in festivals. Song, music, and dance are also important to Abkhazian culture. There are joyous songs for weddings, ritual songs, cult songs, lullabies, healing songs, and work songs. There are special songs for the gathering of the lineage, for the ill, and songs celebrating the exploits of heroes. Poetry and literature are also held in high regard.

Language
Abkhazians speak Abkhaz, though Russian is also common and shares co-official status, and Georgian is widely used in the Gal district where most of the returned Georgian refugees live. Written Abkhaz, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, first appeared in 1862.

Religion
The majority of Abkhazians are Orthodox Christians, comprising approximately 75% of the population. Although officially a canonical territory of the Georgian Orthodox Church, the affairs of Orthodox Christians are run by the Eparchy of Abkhazia under Russian Orthodox influence. Another 10% of Abkhazians are Sunni Muslims, and there is a small number of Jews, Lutherans, Catholics and followers of new religions.

Nature & Environment
Despite the years of isolation, Abkhazia managed to preserve its unique and virgin natural parks and resources. Abkhazia is rich with fresh water and may be one of the biggest exporters of water. The fast growing tourism industry is challenging Abkhazia’s environment. Years of isolation however, deprived Abkhazia of its access to the international know-how on environmental protection standards.

DATES OF SPECIAL INTEREST

31st May Memorial Day: To remember the victims of the Caucasian War and forcible deportation of the Mountainous Caucasian Peoples.

30th September Liberation Day: Held since 1993 to commemorate the driving out of Georgian forces from Abkhazia and consists of a military parade, dancing and music. There is a parade of the Abkhazian military forces, as well as dancing and music festivals.

26th November Constitution Day: Marks the creation of the Abkhaz constitution in 1994

FAMOUS ABKHAZIANS

- Rusudan “Rusa” Goletiani, Woman’s Chess Grand Master
- Gennady Pasko, Impressionist painter
- Levars Butba, Abstractionist painter
- Akhra Tsveiba, Football player
- Bagrat Shinkuba, Writer, poet, historian, linguist, and politician
- Fazil Iskander, Well-known writer
- Murat Yagan, Philosopher, national leader

RELEVANT LINKS

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Abkhazia

BBC Regions and territories: Abkhazia

The Republic of Abkhazia

Sukhum Radio SOMA

Abkhaz World

Apsny Press (Russian)
Apsny Online (Russian)

Last Updated July 2009